Magharebia. [20], Logistically, the new code created a new system of family courts to handle family law matters, presenting the complex challenges of establishing a new, nationwide system from scratch while provoking opposition among adouls, the local legal officials who previously had jurisdiction over marriage and family matters. De ce fait, le Royaume fait le choix d’être dans la continuité du rite malékite et de ne pas rompre avec le droit musulman, tout en se dotant d’un cadre légal. [3], Though the UAF and other women's groups were disappointed by the limited nature of the reforms, they still saw the new bill as a victory. Des Marocaines de la diaspora donnent leur avis sur la révision de la Moudawana Par Mohamed Chakir Alaoui et Yassine Benmini le 14/10/2020 à 16h13 (mise à jour le 14/10/2020 à 20h38) [30], The UAF reached out to and worked with many other organizations and groups of people to achieve the reforms; alliances with other women's rights NGOs, political parties, independent politicians, social workers, and academics enabled the UAF to succeed in its mission. [20] Many supporters of the reforms believe that lack of awareness of the law is the primary barrier to its implementation, with a lack of legal literacy compounded by the fact that many Moroccans speak a Berber dialect rather than the formal Arabic in which the law is actually written. "The Politics of the Reform of the New Family Law (the Moudawana)." [6] The debate extended beyond the realm of the political elite, however, eventually sparking enormous rallies in March 2000. « La Moudawana, que nous avons considéré comme un acquis en 2004, n’est plus d’actualité aujourd’hui. "[36] Through its outreach efforts, the UAF broadened their base of supporters. Fulbright-Hays Summer Seminars Abroad. Civil Society and Political Change in Morocco. Though personally committed to secularism, Jbabdi studied the Koran and the Hadith in order to incorporate religious justifications into her message, realizing that most Moroccans were reluctant to take a completely secular approach to the law. While King Mohamed VI has taken steps to expand Moroccans' political freedoms, like reforming the Moudawana and establishing the Equity and Reconciliation Commission in 2004 to address past government abuses, Morocco's political system remains generally corrupt.[19]. Article précédent Salaires des fonctionnaires: le Maroc prépare une grande réforme Article suivant Quel est votre pire souvenir de l’année 2017? Code de la famille au Maroc - Moudawana Texte de loi relatif à la moudawana de la famille au Maroc. Jordan, Egypt and Tunisia have started discussions on modifying their family laws in similar directions. Polygamie : une tendance qui gagne de plus en plus de terrain au Maroc. [9] Many Islamic groups have emphasized that they do not oppose reform of the Mudawana in general, but reject what they view as reforms rooted in externally imposed principles, such as those based in international human rights law, as opposed to exclusively Islamic origins. 19 septembre 2020; Charlie 5 ans après : où sont les bien-pensants ? Les règles du mariage au Maroc DM Dissolution du mariage. [9] For her membership in an illegal Marxist group known as "March 23", Jbabdi was imprisoned from 1977 until her trial and release in 1980. [24], Opponents to the law assert that the reforms represent an imposition of legislation that does not enjoy broad support, pointing out that opinion polls often favor urban populations and are not representative of Moroccan society as a whole. [6] Many argue that the electoral system's main function is to serve as a means for the monarchy to create and manipulate a dependent class of political elites. [2], Furthermore, just as some scholars praise what they see as a confirmation of the compatibility of Islam and gender equality, others point out that by requiring the framing of gender equality within an Islamic framework, the means by which Muslim women can advocate for equality is inherently limited. [11] Ibid. Morocco in Transition, Middle East Report 218 (Spring 2001). The royal family of Morocco, which claims descent from the Prophet Muhammad, therefore enjoys a sense of political legitimacy rooted in Islam and also has the power to dictate the form that Islam takes within Moroccan society. Maroko adalah negara Afrika Utara, yang terletak di ujung barat laut Afrika di ujung benua Eropa. [18] These figures, and the differences between the two rallies, illustrate a polarization that exists in Moroccan society through today, and the divisions and controversy associated with it, along with the rise of Islamic movements in Morocco, ultimately prevented the PAIWD's implementation. [2] Furthermore, many women's groups and feminist activists in Morocco hold the view that religion must be incorporated into any reformist framework for it to be acceptable to the Moroccan population, and as such, the reforms represent a progressive step without alienating the majority of the society. A man's daughter's children as well as his son's children have the right to inherit property. Women's eNews. Bravo pour cette projection ! Women's eNews. Traditionalists felt only the king had the right to change the law and the modernists felt that the king had the right to exercise ijtihad and ultimately decide the role that Islamic law would play in Morocco's legal framework. [17] Ibid. Generally speaking, the monarchy, Islam, and the territorial integrity of the Moroccan nation are considered to be the nation's three inviolable "sacred institutions." La Moudawana ou Code du statut personnel marocain est le droit de la famille marocain codifié en 1958 sous le règne du roi Mohammed V.Ce code a été amendé une première fois en 1993 par Hassan II, puis révisé en février 2004 par le Parlement marocain et promulgué par le roi Mohammed VI le 10 octobre 2004.Cette dernière révision améliore entre autres les droits des femmes All of Morocco's major women's organizations have positioned their work within an Islamic framework in some way, drawing on the work of Islamic scholars to inform their agendas. [9], This commission resulted in a number of changes, implemented in 1993, which instituted provisions that (among other things) required a bride's verbal consent to marriage, eliminated a father's right to force his daughter to marry, and mandated the obtainment of a judge's permission in cases of polygamy and a husband's repudiation of his wife. Women's Rights in the Middle East and North Africa, Freedom House. In October of 2003, King Mohammad VI announced his intention to radically improve women's rights by reforming Morocco's Mudawwana al Ahwal al Shakhsiyyah, or Code de Statut Personnel,1 and in January 2004, parliament unanimously accepted a series of dramatic changes based on his suggestions. Polygamie : une tendance qui gagne de plus en plus de terrain au Maroc. نظام جمهوری اسلامی دور تازه‌ای ازنقض آزادی بیان شهروندان در فضای مجازی را ک… https://t.co/sOfqdnEFvr, حذف خودکار تاریخچه یوتیوب Civil Society and Political Change in Morocco. Maroc Les MRE débattent de la Moudawana. ALIMAROC ADDICT est un Blog pour les acheteurs Marocain. Maroko terbentang dari Laut Mediterania dan Samudra Atlantik di utara dan barat, masing-masing, ke daerah pegunungan besar di bagian dalam, hingga gurun Sahara di ujung selatan. verabschiedet und hat sowohl positive als auch negative Reaktionen hervorgerufen. [9][26] Judges also retain the right to oversee mandatory reconciliation in the case of divorce, which many women's organizations fear will be used to limit women's autonomy during divorce proceedings. [9][11] This move demonstrated significant political support behind the idea of reform, and framed the issue more as one of politics and human rights than religion (indicated in part by the delivery of the petition to the prime minister, the nominal head of the government, as opposed to the king of Morocco, who is also a spiritual leader). King Hassan II, who ruled from 1961 until his death in 1999, arrested, kidnapped, and tortured thousands of political opponents, especially during the failed coup attempts of 1971 and 1972. Children in custody must be given “suitable accommodation,” the terms of which must be settled within a month of any dispute. [7] Practically speaking, despite multiparty elections, the monarchy, and not parliament, is the site of strategic political decision-making in Morocco. La conférence internationale de Marrakech sur la Justice se tiendra les 21 et 22 octobre. [19], Other critics of the Mudawana point out that irrespective of the value of the reforms themselves, the process by which they were achieved is flawed, creates difficulties for their implementation, and can even be considered counter-productive to the process of democratization. Sharia, Muslim States, and International Human Rights Treaty Obligations. [13] In addition, the Mudawana is the only section of Moroccan law that relies primarily on Islamic sources, rather than Spanish or French civil codes, which gave it a greater sense of immutability and contributed to the difficulty of reforming it later on. Abiad, Nisrine. [9] A state's family or personal status law has wide-ranging implications for citizens' daily lives, but many gender equality advocates point out its particular significance for women, as it governs the age at which they may be married, issues of divorce and child custody, and their right to work and travel outside the home. "Sculpting the Rock of Women's Rights: The Role of Women's Organizations in Promoting the National Plan of Action to Integrate Women in Development in Morocco. [18] Slymovics. Nous avons créé ce blog afin d’aider les personnes à faire leurs achats sur les sites de Ecommerce. Challenges to these three institutions, whether through questioning the king's authority or the legitimacy of Islamic law as the basis for legal codes, are technically imprisonable offenses. 9 June 2009. Many against the Moudawana reformation believed the UAF's campaign to be against the Islamic values traditionally held in Morocco. (VIDEO) Articles similaires . Dec 8, 2020 Spread the love Rabat – Women must be equal partners in peacebuilding and conflict prevention efforts, Morocco’s Minister of Foreign Affairs Nasser Bourita said Tuesday. For example, women were now allowed to designate the guardian or tutor who would give approval for their marriage, and fathers were no longer allowed to compel their daughters into marriage. The revision of the Family Code (Moudawana) in Morocco in 2004 represents the main advance in women’s rights. Women, the State, and Political Liberalization: Middle Eastern and North African Experiences. Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs. Join us for in Rabat, Marrakech, and the Atlas Mountains April 19-25, 2020. [11] In particular, the Moroccan minister for religious affairs opposed the plan, and the Moroccan cabinet became divided over the issue. The Maliki school has been the dominant source of Islamic jurisprudence in Morocco since the 10th century. Furthermore, journalists who report on government issues also face heavy restrictions; the government has enacted restrictive press laws and employs an array of economic mechanisms to punish independent and opposition journalists. Vital Voices. The minimum age for men and women to be married is 18 unless specified by a judge; in addition, boys and girls under custody may choose their custodian once they reach the age of 15. [27] The argument that follows is that the reforms are essentially superficial because it is in the government's interest to favor the maintenance of the status quo over the potential conflict that would arise were the reforms to be implemented on a full scale. Malchiodi, Beth. Tennis’ Ace Card: Billie Jean King and the Battle for Women’s Equality, Uniao Nacional dos Estudantes: Generations of Student Struggle for Brazilian Rights, Through the Eye of the Needle: Frances Perkins and the Seamstresses’ Rebellion. [6] The PAIWD's main areas of focus were education, reproductive health, the involvement of women in development, and empowerment through legal reforms and a strengthening of political power. [11] Moreover, many scholars and activists have pointed out that there was strong support for reform from both sides of the debate; the conflict lay in the source of the reforms and in questions of cultural authenticity.[19]. "A New Family Law in Morocco." La démocratie libérale avancée serait devenue le modèle universel et dominant, à imiter voire à adopter, y compris par la force, comme en témoignent les projets de démocratie dans le grand Moyen-Orient, inspirés par les néoconservateurs américains. او را… https://t.co/ghcnvfLQWJ, RT @TavaanaTech: یوتیوب در کدام کشورها فیلتر است؟ [6], Five years after the new Mudawana laws were passed, the president of the ADFM noted that opposition to its reforms was still present throughout the judicial system. فردی که #آپارات را تاسیس کرده بود خود اعتراف کرده بود آپارات نان #فیلترینگ یوتیوب را می‌خ…, نقض آزادی وکلای دادگستری در فضای مجازی "Progressive or Conservative, Women Influence Islam." The first wife may also petition for divorce if the husband takes another wife. ... مدونة السير بالمغرب 2020. This occurred shortly after Mohammad VI succeeded his father as King, and within a year of the rallies, he announced the formation of a commission to further reform the Mudawana. Cette dernière révision améliore entre autres les droits des femmes. "Morocco Country Report." Its most recent revision, passed by the Moroccan parliament in 2004, has been praised by human rights activists for its measures to address women's rights and gender equality within an Islamic legal framework.[2]. [21], The UAF was able to organize high-profile demonstrations to prove to the government that a large number of Moroccans supported the reforms. The new code was submitted for approval and passed into law by the Parliament in 2004, drastically changing the landscape of family law in Morocco and beyond. "[4], Using the momentum generated by the One Million Signatures campaign and the 1993 Moudawana reforms, the UAF and other women's groups continued to lobby the government by raising awareness of other issues affecting women such as rape and domestic violence. 8 Oct. 2005. "Morocco/Western Sahara." [24] Finally, some characterize the high degree of debate and deliberation over the issue as a dividing influence in the end; a representative from one Moroccan women's organization described the women's movement in Morocco not as a movement, but an uncoordinated group of different organizations. [2] Zvan, Katja. La loi en vigueur jusqu'en 1993 permettait à l'homme musulman d'avoir quatre femmes officielles au maximum (art. 2009. However, the UAF held debates with these organizations to convince them that the Moudawana reforms were worth fighting for.[32]. This sparked fierce debate and opposition within Moroccan political elites and, to a somewhat lesser extent, Moroccan society, and culminated in two rallies in Casablanca and Rabat in March 2000 – one in support of reform and one in opposition to it. Copyright © 2020 E-Collaborative for Civic Education. [6], Some have described the women's rights movement in Morocco as a movement of elites and criticized the new Mudawana on similar grounds. Towards the end of his reign, in the late 1990s, King Hassan II opened up the political process to opposition parties, such as the Socialist Party (USFP) and the Parti du Progres et du Socialism (PPS). [15] Ibid. Supporters of the reforms point to broad support for them among Moroccan society, especially among women, and cite the new law as a successful example of a progressive reform framed in indigenous, Islamic principles. [19], However, there is some evidence that the reforms are not totally without effect. 30 June 2009. "Assessing the Impact of the 2004 Moudawana on Women's Rights in Morocco. Association des femmes du Maroc, 2004, L’égalité entre les Hommes et les Femmes, point de vue de la population marocaine, Rapport d’analyse, Rabat. After a series of demonstrations, educational seminars, government lobbying, and a One Million Signatures petition campaign, King Hassan II was forced to take action. [22] Most men who oppose the reforms believe the law negatively impacts them, gives greater weight to their spouses' demands, and view it as contrary to their religious beliefs. A women's rights group known as the Women's Action Union, the Union de l'Action Feminine in French (UAF), and its allies wanted to reform these unjust laws and secure equal rights for women under the family code, thus catalyzing the Moudawana reform movement. Yet the Moudawana, the family code that governs areas of family law such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, and child custody, gave few rights to women when it was first adopted in 1958, reflecting centuries-old customs. مدونة السير بالمغرب pdf. Comme indiqué au … C’est donc en 1957 que le Maroc, entreprend de codifier le droit de la famille, sous l’appellation de Moudawana ou Code du Statut personnel. Development, in many cases includes a process of securing access to rights, and their enforcement, whereas the existence of rights enhances development processes. Under the law, men could unilaterally divorce their wives while women's right to divorce was highly restricted; women could not marry without legal approval from a guardian or tutor; married women were obliged by law to obey their husbands; and men could marry multiple women without their wives' consent.[1]. 19 Dec. 2003.; Abiad, Nisrine. La dissolution du pacte du mariage et ses effets IS La naissance et ses effets. Children born outside of wedlock have the right to the acknowledgment of paternity. The UAF was opposed by the ulama, Islamic scholars and arbiters of religious law, as well as other religious groups that supported the existing Moudawana as a religious text. 6 septembre 2020; Islam = Islamisme (10) 22 août 2020; Comment égorger un mouton dans sa salle de bains 12 août 2020; Archives Archives. [9][15] He also indicated that he sought to “reflect the general will of the nation” rather than impose legislation from above, and described the reform as not a victory for one side or the other. The Mudawana (or Moudawana, Arabic: المدوّنة‎), short for mudawwanat al-aḥwāl al-shakhṣiyyah (مدونة الأحوال الشخصية),[1] is the personal status code, also known as the family code, in Moroccan law. "Sculpting the Rock of Women's Rights: The Role of Women's Organizations in Promoting the National Plan of Action to Integrate Women in Development in Morocco." Malik ibn Anas, the founder of the Maliki school of Sunni Islam, wrote Al-Muwatta, which was an 8th-century collection of hadith, or sayings, of Muhammad, his family, and his companions. According to the Moroccan Ministry of Justice, in 2008 there were more marriages and slightly fewer divorces in Morocco. Most women's organizations in Morocco receive external funding, whether from the government, various Moroccan political parties, or international actors such as USAID, the European Development Bank, and the World Bank, which has left them open to criticisms that their agendas are tied to the sources of their funding and therefore compromised. Moudawanat Aliexpress. Initially, the UAF and its reformist allies adopted a strictly secular agenda. "H E Latifa Jbabdi." Refworld contains a vast collection of reports relating to situations in countries of origin, policy documents and positions, and documents relating to international and national legal frameworks. [32] Ibid. It concerns issues related to the family, including the regulation of marriage, polygamy, divorce, inheritance, and child custody. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001. Women cannot be married against their will, though if they wish to designate a male relative to act as their marital tutor, they may. [15], In 1969, King Hassan II created the Union Nationale des Femmes Marocaines (UNFM), an organization with the stated goal of improving the social and economic status of women in Morocco. Additionally, the King created a Ministry in Charge of the Condition of Women, Protection of the Family, Childhood and the Disabled to advance gender equality, he consulted with women's rights activists, and he appointed a commission to revise the Moudawana. One of the clearest indications came on March 12, 2000, when the reformists organized a march to take place in Rabat in recognition of International Women's Day. Moudawana: L'Union de l'action féministe appelle à réviser le code de la famille dans sa globalité 19 février 2018 - 06:57. [4] Ibid. Of the divorces granted, almost 30% were divorce by mutual consent – which did not exist before the 2004 reforms. London: British Institute of International and Comparative Law, 2008. Fulbright-Hays Summer Seminars Abroad. This group, with input from several Moroccan women's organizations and funding from the World Bank, produced Le Plan d’action national pour l’intégration de la femme au développement (The Plan of Action for the Integration of Women in Development, or PAIWD). Entretien avec Mohamed Saïd Saadi, ancien ministre En 1998, le gouvernement de l’alternance de Youssoufi avait donné le ton, dès le discours d’investiture et a fait de la question de la femme, une priorité. "Progressive or Conservative, Women Influence Islam." When she was 14, she became involved in a student movement campaigning for democratic reforms in Morocco. [36] Robinson. اگر از کاربران #یوتیوب هستید بهتر است بدانید برای حفظ امنیت ضروری است تاریخچه فعالیت‌های… https://t.co/5TVcs5D2sX, Happy #YaldaNight? Moreover, a woman can stipulate in her marriage contract that her husband may not take a second wife, and a first wife must consent to the second. [31] Ghazalla. [29], Women and civil society: foundations of reform, Number One (2008), film by: Zakia Tahri production of: CCM Film Institute, Made In Morocco Film, SNRT, Soread-2M, List of parenting issues affecting separated parents, Royal Advisory Council for Saharan Affairs, "Liberal Outcomes through Undemocratic Means: The Reform of the Code de status personnel in Morocco", "Political Authority in Crisis: Mohammad VI's Morocco", "Women's Learning Partnership: Family Law", "The Moroccan Family Code (Moudawana): An unofficial English translation of the original Arabic text", "The Status of Women in the Middle East and North Africa Project: Focus on Morocco: Opinions on the Family Law and Gender Quotas - Topic Brief", "International NGO Releases Survey Findings on Women's Political Standing in Morocco", "Morocco's Imperfect Remedy for Gender Equality", "More marriage, less divorce attributed to new Moroccan family code", Full text of the code from the Human Rights Education Association, Feature on the Mudawana by Professor Mounira Charrad for the International Museum of Women, Essay about feminism and women's organizations in Morocco, UNDP profile on gender dynamics in Morocco, Global Rights (NGO) page about Morocco, including links to Mudawana resources, Women's Learning Partnership (NGO) page about Morocco, including links to Mudawana resources, New York Times article about the Mudawana, five years after the reforms, Article from Magharebia about the Mudawana, five years after the reforms, Index of online Mudawana resources from Friends of Morocco, A www.resetdoc.org interview with Nouzha Guessous member of the Moudawana commission, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mudawana&oldid=988608833, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, Both spouses share responsibility for the family; “women are men’s sisters before the law.”. [11] It did this in part by codifying the system of existing patriarchal, kin-based social structures within the newly independent state. Abingdon: Routledge, 2007. The movement did not stop once they had achieved their original goals. [29] Ibid. A married couple may negotiate an agreement separate from the marriage contract regarding the management of assets they acquire while married (this does not negate the principle of separate marital property), This page was last edited on 14 November 2020, at 05:28. [16] Armed with the canons of Islam, Jbabdi could engage with opponents who said that the reforms contradicted Islam, successfully arguing that some interpretations of the religious texts supported equality for women. While polygamy had become nearly nonexistent, she noted, one out of every ten marriages still involved a minor as of 2007, and the system was facing organizational challenges. Moroccans living abroad may complete a marriage contract by drawing it up in the presence of two Muslim witnesses, according to the local laws, and registering it with local Moroccan consular or judicial authorities. After the reforms were announced, the United States government, the World Bank, and Human Rights Watch all released statements of support for the new laws. "Sculpting the Rock of Women's Rights: The Role of Women's Organizations in Promoting the National Plan of Action to Integrate Women in Development in Morocco." PDF. The minimum age for women to marry was raised from 15 to 18, the same as the men's minimum age; women no longer needed to obtain approval from a guardian before marrying; men were forbidden from unilaterally divorcing their wives; women were given the right to divorce their husbands; and while it was still permitted for men to have multiple wives, restrictions were imposed to make polygamous marriages harder to obtain and only with the permission of a judge.[7]. The history of Morocco shows a divide between the rigid and enforceable nature of the French civil code and the traditional . "Assessing the Impact of the 2004 Moudawana on Women's Rights in Morocco." informal justice system as well as . Fiscmaroc vous permet de consulter les textes juridiques marocains en vigueur de plusieurs matières. [25] Ibid. Charrad, Mounira M. States and Women's Rights: The Making of Postcolonial Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. #محمدرضاشاه #جهرم #شاه #پهلوی https://t.co/T4o9rYGpMj, ویلیام نلسون جوی عضو آکادمی ملی مهندسی، آکادمی هنر و علوم آمریکا است. Vidéo. Women in Morocco are central to the family structure around which Moroccan society is based. [8], The King is not only a political leader, but also holds the title “Commander of the Faithful,” indicating his role as a religious leader as well. Moudawana .. This included the founding of many new women's associations, many of which began as affiliates of existing political parties. Aujourd'hui en l'aube de 2020 on peut dire que vous aviez incroyablement raison concernant l'impact de ces lois. Vital Voices. 1,063 likes. London: British Institute of International and Comparative Law, 2008. 2008. [9] High levels of female illiteracy and a strong sense of traditionalism in many rural areas further compound these challenges. - 16 septembre, 2020 - 11:24 «A Hoceima», le conservatoire de musique et le Grand théâtre s’apprêtent pour l’ouverture - 23 août, 2020 - 12:10 2009. Au Maroc, les mariages polygames gagnent du terrain, et ce, malgré la mise en place de la loi instaurée en 2004. [6], In the 1980s, a financial crisis led King Hassan II to implement a program of structural adjustment that included some social reforms, leading to increased activity among political and civil society organizations. l'adoul risque lui … November 9, 2017. This process also arguably reduces Islamic women to a single, universal category that does not recognize their individual choices. [16] Levinson, Charles. "A New Family Law in Morocco." The proposed reforms drew not only on principles derived from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights but also on the Islamic principles of equality, justice, and tolerance. Robinson, Helah. 15 Feb. 2008. Vision and Motivation. “Chiffres clés: Dates clés” [Key figures: Key dates], Autoroutes du Maroc, accessed May 20, 2020, https: ... Family Code (Moudawana) of the Kingdom of Morocco 2004, pmbl. Amazigh . 2001. [14] Ibid. Aujourd’hui, la légalisation partielle de l’IVG au Maroc. Au Maroc, le nouveau Code de la famille (2004) a introduit des dispositions en faveur du renforcement des droits des femmes et d’une meilleure reconnaissance de l’égalité entre les sexes. Le juge aux affaires familiales à Safi a prononcé un divorce pour mésentente dans le couple, en l’absence du mari. 29, alinéa 2). Cette 2ème édition s’articulera autour du … Tous les ans, un millier de mariages polygames sont célébrés. Morocco made a landmark reform to its family code (moudawana) in 2004; it is only the second Arab country (after Tunisia) to have introduced such progressive measures for women.Led by their own vigorous movement and supported by the king, women won greater equality – notably the right to marry without the permission of a male family member and to initiate divorce on a fairer basis. [16] It was in this environment that calls for reform to the Mudawana first began to gain traction. [6], Many activists and scholars embrace the reforms as evidence that gender equality is compatible with Islamic principles; indeed, some scholars have argued that what they consider to be an authentic interpretation of Shari'a actually requires reforms in the name of gender equality. [8] Some have argued that the king's support was motivated as much by international pressures and his desire to join the European Union as domestic economic and political problems. [28] The bombings shocked the Moroccan people, making religious fundamentalism unpopular and enabling reformists to take advantage of this change in Morocco's political climate to spread their message. [35] Ghazalla. Freedom House. [23] Zvan. [9][16] Still others point out that in an even broader sense, the universal notion of formal equality itself may not be evenly applicable or relevant to women from different social, cultural, and national backgrounds. طرح از محمد مردانی افضل To gain support from the NGO community, the UAF organized media seminars and conferences for a variety of national and international women's and human rights organizations. Despite having open parliamentary elections in 2002 in which more than 12 political parties participated, Morocco cannot be considered an electoral democracy.